When
Constantine the Great became Emperor of Rome, he ended the persecution of
the Christians and began restoring their properties and rights. Why did he
do this? Were his actions those of a man who simply did not approve of the
persecution of a people because of their religious beliefs and practices, or
were they actions of a man who had embraced Christianity? My initial belief
was that Constantine was not a Christian and had simply used Christianity as
a way to strengthen his rule of the Roman Empire. However, after studying
various writings covering the life and reign of Constantine, it is now my
belief that Constantine did indeed believe that Jesus was the Messiah and
that he acknowledged him as Lord.
In this paper, I
will briefly look at Constantine’s life in his defeat of Maxentius and the
vision he is said to have had before that battle. I will then look at his
character and his interaction with Christianity during his reign as emperor
to gain a clear picture of Constantine the Christian.
Constantine’s Vision
Constantine, the son of Constantius Chlorus, was proclaimed emperor by his
soldiers while in Britain.
While determining to overthrow Maxentius, Constantine began considering
which of the gods to entreat to assist him in his coming battle (Ibid., 1 &
2). It appears that Constantine was an astute observer of men as Socrates
Scholasticus reports in his work, The Ecclesiastical History, in that
Constantine recognized that the pagan deities that Diocletian’s party had
favored had not helped them while his father’s rejection of all the Greek
religions had apparently prospered him (Schaff & Wace, Vol. 2, p.1).
While marching to
Rome to meet Maxentius, Constantine, is said to have seen a vision of a
cross with the words, “By this conquer.” Others claimed to have also seen
this vision. Constantine then received instructions from Jesus in a dream on
constructing a new standard to use against his enemies. Constantine followed
the instructions he had been given and defeated Maxentius at the Milvian
bridge near Rome. (Ibid., pp. 1 & 2)
This
in itself would not be enough to determine that Constantine had become a
Christian. It is apparent that he believed that the Jesus whom the
Christians worshipped was the one who had appeared to him in his dream
giving him the victory. This recognition shows in his acknowledging God as
the source of his victory through: his ending of the persecution of the
Christians; letting exiled Christians return home; freeing imprisoned
Christians; and returning confiscated properties to Christians at no expense
to them.
Constantine’s Character
A
question arises in my mind. Would Constantine, an able leader, statesman,
and accomplished military leader acknowledge the God of a people who had
been persecuted by his predecessors for well over one hundred years for his
victory unless he felt that that God had helped him? A look at Constantine’s
character, as discussed by Editor Ernest Cushing Richardson, PhD., in The
Life of Constantine, General Prolegomena in Volume 1 of the Nicene and
Post-Nicene Fathers of the Christian Church, show Constantine to be a
man of admirable character. Dr. Richardson divided the discussion of
Constantine’s character into five divisions; inherited, physical, mental,
moral, and religious characteristics.
1.
Inherited
Characteristics
You may usually expect that a man’s son will exhibit many of the same traits as
his father. In Constantine’s case, it seems that the fruit did not fall far from
the tree. “Constantine is said to have inherited his father’s strength, courage,
personal appearance, piety, and general virtues (Ibid., p 421). The esteem,
respect, and honor in which he held his mother would indicate not only his
character, but also a respect for her learned at an early age (Ibid.).
2.
Physical
characteristics
Without going into minute detail over his appearance, Constantine was a handsome
man of “above medium height” (Ibid.). He gave an impression of great bodily
strength and vigor. His bearing was calm, self-possessed, and dignified. The
fact that his soldiers made him emperor while in Britain would indicate the
regard in which they held him. His personality was cordial as evidenced by the
relations he later had with various bishops who came to him to settle disputes.
A physical caricature of Constantine that comes to my mind is one often found in
the magazine, The New Yorker. It is of a broad-shouldered, confident
looking man in top hat and tails; a picture denoting strength and style. In
short, Constantine probably made quite a physical impression. (Ibid., pp
421-422).
3.
Mental
characteristics
Constantine was an intelligent man with sound judgment, excellent reasoning
abilities, and “skilled in the science of letters and the science of arms.”
(Ibid., pp. 422-423).
4.
Moral
characteristics
Constantine seems to have been very energetic and ambitious without being
headstrong (an unusual characteristic for an Emperor), amiable in his
relationships with people and considered humane. Eusebius said that in
“Constantine’s reign, ‘The sword of justice lay idle’ and men were ‘rather
constrained by a paternal authority than governed by the stringent power of the
laws.’” (Ibid., pp. 423-435). However, there are limits to any man’s patience
and, judging by the severity of his punishment at times, Constantine had his
limits. He had various members of his family executed and had prisoners killed
by animals. After the Arian controversy arose, Constantine issued an edict
stating that anyone found hiding copies of Arius’ works would be executed.
(Ibid., 425). Even so, Constantine appeared to be a patient and fair man who
was generous to a fault and many of these cases were due to people taking
advantage of them (Ibid.).
5.
Religious
characteristics
If you believe that you are not a Christian until you are baptized, then you
would say that Constantine did not become a Christian until shortly before his
death (Vol. 2 of Schaff & Wace, p 35). If you feel that the only way you can
tell if a person is a Christian is by his life and works (James 2:18), then you
must look at the actions and words spoke by Constantine after his vision and
dream. I think it safe to say that only God knows for sure if and when
Constantine became a Christian.
Before looking at
specific actions, edicts, orations, and his interaction with Christian leaders,
it is wise to consider one other way to judge a man’s character; comments made
by those who would be considered at odds with his policies and beliefs. The act
of Constantine’s issuing edicts favoring Christians and restoring their
properties and losses using public monies would certainly bring opposition from
those people opposed to Christianity. It would certainly bring opposition from
those no longer receiving monies because of the money going instead to
Christians. One such man, Praxagoras, a heathen, stated, “that in all sorts of
virtues and personal excellences and good fortune, Constantine outshone all
those emperors who preceded him.” (Vol. 1 of Schaff & Wace, p.434). Certainly,
Constantine had his detractors as all politicians and rulers will, but the fact
that there were those who should be opposed to his new commitment to
Christianity who still spoke well of him should give us some indication of his
character and the regard with which he was held in general.
In short, if
Constantine were alive and in politics today, I feel he would be a popular
leader because of his likeable personality, good looks, attractive physical
appearance and vigor, intelligence, and strong people skills. Would a man with
such natural, and developed, leadership skills and strong mental and
intellectual capabilities give credit for his successes to someone else unless
he felt that person had in some way contributed to his success? I think a man
such as this would give credit where credit is due, in Constantine’s case to the
Christian God whom he felt gave him success over Maxentius.
Constantine and the Edict of Milan
As already stated,
upon defeating Maxentius, Constantine issued the Edict of Milan, which
officially ended the persecution of the Christians, freed Christian prisoners,
and returned their property to them. My initial belief regarding this was that
Constantine did this for political reasons. Though I have not read all the books
on the early church and Constantine, what I have read has convinced me that the
Christians at that time, although gaining more converts among the upper class,
did not have enough political weight to warrant such an edict. Therefore, I no
longer believe that this was purely a political move. It was, in my opinion, the
result of Constantine’s new affinity for the Christians, an affinity due to the
Christian’s God, in his mind at least, giving him victory over Maxentius, a foe
with superior numbers. (Vol. 1 of Schaff & Wace, p. 416)
Although the Edict of
Milan officially ended the persecution of the Christians, persecution continued.
Licinius, Constantine’s new brother-in-law, continued covertly persecuting the
Christians in the east far from Constantine. Constantine discovered this and
required that Licinius take an oath to refrain from this persecution. Licinius
took this oath but shortly violated this oath with the result of war between him
and Constantine. After several battles, Constantine captured Licinius alive.
(Vol. 2 of Schaff & Wace, pp. 2 & 3). It is surprising that Constantine did not
have him executed. Instead, Constantine ordered Licinius to live peaceably in
Thessalonica. He did, for a short time, but then attempted a small revolt. This
time the Emperor ordered Licinius executed (Vol. 1, p. 418), which he was,
leaving Constantine as the sole ruler of the Roman Empire. (Vol. 2, pp 2&3).
Constantine and the Church
Once Constantine
became ruler of the empire, he became increasingly involved with the affairs of
the Church. Just before his defeat of Licinius, he became involved in trying to
settle the “Donatist Schism” (Vol. 1, p.417), a conflict within the church on
what to do with the lapsed and their restoration to the church.
Because of the unrest and division this was causing within the church,
Constantine instructed his officials to “acknowledge only Caelicilian” and his
party because of their support from the bishops in Rome (Ibid. 152).
Constantine’s act of siding with Caelicilian gave official recognition to the
Roman bishops, solidifying their status as the official church.
Another issue that
arose during Constantine’s reign was that of Arius’ opposition to the doctrine
of the trinity. Over one hundred years earlier, Tertullian, in defending the
view of the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit against the doctrine of the Modalists,
came up with the definition of what the church today generally recognizes as the
trinity; “one substance and three persons” (Ibid., 77). While the modalists
believed that God appeared in different individual modes (Ibid.), Arius taught
that since Jesus “was begotten,” there must have been a time when Jesus “was
not” (Vol. 2 of Schaff & Wace, 3). This sparked a firestorm within the church
beginning in Alexandria and spreading through all of the churches in North
Africa. Alexander, Bishop of Alexandria, convened a council and subsequently
excommunicated Arius (Vol. 2, Schaff & Wace, 3). Protests soon followed with
letters charging Alexander of heresy (Gonzalez, 162).
Into this fray
stepped Constantine. Upon learning of the chaos, he sent a personal envoy,
Hosius, with a letter to Alexandria and Arius (envoys are still being sent to
this part of the world). In this letter, Constantine gently chastises them both
for destroying the harmony of the church and urges them to consider his
“exhortations” as one from a “fellow-servant” (Vol. 2, Schaff & Wace, 6). He
even goes so far as to suggest that this entire subject should never have been
brought up and, when it was, it should not have been answered (Ibid.). In other
words, both of you were wrong! “Even the philosophers themselves are united
under one sect.” (Ibid., 7)
However, the genie
was out of the bottle and rather than exercise his authority as emperor and
ending this controversy the ways his predecessors may have done by execution,
imprisonment, or exile, Constantine convenes an ecumenical council at Nicea in
A.D. 325 (Gonzalez, 162) to primarily discuss this issue. Constantine attended
and addressed this council. If the accuracy of Eusebius in his, “Life of
Constantine” (Vol. 2, Schaff & Wace, 10-11) is to be trusted, the words with
which Constantine addressed the council would indicate, at the very least, a
sympathy to Christians and Christianity if not an adherence to its doctrine and
teaching. When petitions were presented to the emperor, he had them burned,
stating that “Christ enjoins him who is anxious to obtain forgiveness, to
forgive his brothers,” a remarkable Christ-like attitude. The result of this
council, led by the emperor himself, resulted in what we call The Nicene Creed.
The import of this officially recognized creed is that it specifically rejected
Arius’ view of Jesus (Ibid.) and recognized Tertullian’s view of the trinity as
“one substance and three persons” (Gonzalez, p.77).
A Few Selected Quotes of Constantine
I have selected
several quotes of Constantine taken from The Oration of The Emperor
Constantine as edited by Dr. Richardson (Vol. 1, Schaff & Wace, 561-586).
“Preliminary remarks on the feast of Easter” – “That light which far outshines
the day and sun, first pledge of resurrection, and renovation of bodies long
since dissolved” (Ibid., 561).
“Be
it my special provision to glorify Christ, as well by the actions of my life, as
by that thanksgiving which is due to him for the manifold and signal blessings
which he has bestowed” (Ibid., 563).
In
chapters 16 & 17 of his oration, Constantine extols the prophets, Moses, and the
nation Israel and the subsequent judgments of Israel (Ibid., 573) and in
chapters 24 and 25, condemned the persecution of Christians by previous Roman
emperors (Ibid., 579). In the final chapter of his oration, Constantine gives
credit for his exploits to God, the “supreme judge, prince of immortality, the
Giver of everlasting life” (Ibid., 586). This demonstrates to me Constantine’s
knowledge of Israel’s role in God’s plan and the guilt of his predecessors’
actions.
Conclusion
It appears that Constantine was a man blessed with good character,
health, vigor, and intelligence who felt that God had enabled him to rise to
become the emperor of the Roman Empire. Once in that position, he ended the
persecution of Christians and even defended them from Licinius’ persecution.
Almost from the very beginning of his rise to Emperor, he became involved with
affairs of the church, trying to settle disputes and schisms. He convened
councils consisting of the leaders of the church to try to solve the problems
within the church. Many of these decisions and their impact on the church are
still with us today. Other laws Constantine passed, such as tax exemptions for
the clergy (Gonzalez, p. 152) are still with us to some degree. Was Constantine
“saved?” Only time will tell for sure, but until that day, his actions and the
words he spoke would indicate to me that Constantine the Great had indeed become
a Christian.
Works Cited
Gonzales, Justo L., The
Story of Christianity, Vol. One: The Early Church to the Dawn of the
Reformation. Peabody, Massachusetts: Prince Press, 2001.
Schaff, Philip, and Henry
Wace, eds., A Select Library of Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers of the
Christian Church, 2nd Series, Vol. I: Church History, Life of
Constantine the Great, and Oration in Praise of Constantine. Grand Rapids:
Eerdmans, 1952.
Schaff, Philip, and Henry
Wace, eds., A Select Library of Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers of the
Christian Church, 2nd Series, Vol. II: Socrates, Sozomenus: Church
Histories. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1952.
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